![]() A digital light processing (DLP) is used in DLP 3D printing to expose each and entire layer all at once, and thus DLP can enable large printing volumes at high speed. After each pass, the built plate or platform moves down slightly until the intended 3D structure is completed. Laser light cures photopolymers and the exposed portion of the polymers hardens with each pass over the object. Stereolithography (SLA) involves the formation of a solidified component from a liquid bed via laser illumination. The printed structure can maintain its shape owing to high viscosity in the absence of shear stress. Direct ink writing (DIW) is an ink-based technique, where ink can be extracted from a nozzle, like a fluid, because of low viscosity with applied shear stress. The cured layers are built one-by-one to create a complete 3D object. PolyJet 3D printing is based on the material jetting, where liquid photopolymers are dropped and cured with ultraviolet (UV) light. It is based on the material extrusion, where thermoplastic materials are melted and pulled out through a nozzle to form successive object layers. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a common type of 3D printing that is widely used in either low-cost 3D printers or professional 3D printers. įigure 1 shows different types of conventional 3D printing methods, and Table 1 presents their main features. 3D printing is employed in various fields, including automotive and aerospace, , microfluidics, , bioengineering, , and medicine. ![]() Various materials, such as polymers, ceramics, composites, and metal powders, have been used in 3D printing. 3D digital objects can be realized with unprecedented complexities in shape and material. In contrast to traditional subtractive manufacturing methods, an arbitrary 3D object can be built layer-by-layer from the bottom up thus, this technique is also referred to as additive manufacturing. Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a new paradigm in the customized manufacturing of products and components using digital blueprints. ![]() Abundant new opportunities exist for exploration. Therefore, 3D and 4D printing can introduce unprecedented opportunities in optics and metaphotonics and may have applications in freeform optics, integrated optical and optoelectronic devices, displays, optical sensors, antennas, active and tunable photonic devices, and biomedicine. Furthermore, with various printable smart materials, 4D printing might provide a unique platform for active and reconfigurable structures. 3D printing can be ideal for customized, nonconventional optical components and complex metaphotonic structures. Then, we have presented the various designs and applications of 3D and 4D printing in the optical, terahertz, and microwave domains. In this article, we have first discussed functional materials for 3D and 4D printing. This review introduces recent developments in 3D and 4D printing, with emphasis on topics that are interesting for the nanophotonics and metaphotonics communities. Four-dimensional (4D) printing adds active, responsive functions to 3D-printed structures and provides new avenues for active, reconfigurable optical and microwave structures. Additionally, 3D printing can allow printing on curved surfaces. Conventional lithography techniques are usually limited to planar patterning, but 3D printing can allow the fabrication and integration of complex shapes or multiple parts along the out-of-plane direction. ![]() Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a new paradigm in customized manufacturing and allows the fabrication of complex optical components and metaphotonic structures that are difficult to realize via traditional methods. ![]()
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